Russian
русский язык — Indo-European. Six cases, three genders, aspect before tense, no articles at all, and a present-tense copula that is simply absent. Word order is free because the case endings say who did what.
This is read-only. A copy is an ordinary language of yours, editable everywhere, and it remembers that it started here.
Where the answers came from
34 answers are from a database — WALS, Grambank or PHOIBLE — and every one is checked against the published coding. 266 are from a reference grammar, and those carry the mark below wherever they appear.
from a grammar — no published coding exists for that question, so the answer is a judgement rather than a citation.
Written from: Timberlake, A Reference Grammar of Russian (2004); Wade, A Comprehensive Russian Grammar (3rd ed., 2011)
Sentences
ProtoLingua reproduces 26% of a speaker's own translation of these seven sentences, counted word part by word part, in order.
This measures ProtoLingua rather than Russian. The databases record where a marker sits and whether it exists, never what it is, and the app carries one suffix per category — so a language that packs several categories into one ending loses a mark on every inflected word. The translation uses the same words as the entry, so the comparison is of word order, agreement, case, tense and the marker forms.
NounPronounVerbAdjectiveAdverbAdpositionConjunctionDeterminerInterjection
grammatical marker
The big cat quickly jumped into the green grass.
Bolshoy
bolʃoj
big
big
koshka
koʃka
cat
cat
quickly
—
quickly
quickly
prygat-l-yet
prjɡat-l-jet
jump-PST-3SG
jumped
v
v
into
into
zelenyy
zelenjj
green
green
trava
trava
grass
grass
A speaker would say: bolshaya koshka bystro prygnula v zelenuyu travu — 22% of it comes out.
I am going home.
Ya
ja
i
I
dom
dom
home
home
idti-yu
idti-ju
go-1SG
going
A speaker would say: ya idu domoy — 25% of it comes out.
She did not see the two birds.
Ona
ona
she
She
ne
ne
NEG
not
videt-l-yet
videt-l-jet
see-PST-3SG
see
dva
dva
two
two
ptitsa-y-u
ptitsa-j-u
bird-PL-ACC
birds
A speaker would say: ona ne videla dvukh ptits — 22% of it comes out.
Did the old woman give the child a book?
Li
li
Q
—
staryy
starjj
old
old
zhenshchina
—
woman
woman
dat-l-yet
dat-l-jet
give-PST-3SG
give
rebenok
rebenok
child
child
kniga-u
kniɡa-u
book-ACC
book
A speaker would say: dala li staraya zhenshchina rebenku knigu — 22% of it comes out.
My brother is a farmer.
Brat
brat
brother
brother
my
—
My
My
fermer-u
fermer-u
farmer-ACC
farmer
A speaker would say: moy brat fermer — 50% of it comes out.
The man who saw me left.
Muzhchina
—
man
man
kotoryy
kotorjj
REL
who
videt-l-yet
videt-l-jet
see-PST-3SG
saw
me-u
-u
me-ACC
me
uyti-l-yet
ujti-l-jet
leave-PST-3SG
left
A speaker would say: muzhchina kotoryy videl menya ushel — 20% of it comes out.
I know that she left.
Ya
ja
i
I
znat-yu
znat-ju
know-1SG
know
chto
—
COMP
that
ona
ona
she
she
uyti-l-yet
ujti-l-jet
leave-PST-3SG
left
A speaker would say: ya znayu chto ona ushla — 38% of it comes out.
Rendered from the answers that govern an ordinary clause — order, adpositions, case, tense, agreement, plural, and where modifiers sit. The answers below that exist to demonstrate one feature each are left out of the rendering, because switching all of them on at once puts every marker on every word. The vocabulary is two dozen words, so anything with no word yet stays in English.
The answers
Syntax
| Question | Answer | Source |
|---|---|---|
| In a plain statement, what order do the subject, the verb and the object come in? | SVO — subject, verb, object (English, Mandarin, Swahili) | WALS 81A, Grambank GB130 |
| Do words like "in", "to" and "with" come before or after the noun? | Before — prepositions ("in the house") | WALS 85A, Grambank GB074, Grambank GB075 |
| In a question like "what did she see?", where does the question word go? | At the front — "what did she see" | WALS 93A |
| Does an adjective come before or after the noun it describes? | Before the noun | WALS 87A, Grambank GB193 |
| Does a numeral come before or after the noun? | Before ("two birds") | WALS 89A, Grambank GB024 |
| Do articles and demonstratives come before or after the noun? | Before ("the cat") | WALS 88A, Grambank GB025 |
| Does a possessor come before or after the thing possessed? | After ("brother my", "dog the-farmer") | from a grammar |
| Where does the negative particle go? | Before the verb ("not go") | WALS 143A |
| Where does a relative clause go? | After the noun — "the man who saw me". English, Arabic, Swahili | WALS 90A |
| What happens to the missing argument inside the clause? | A relative pronoun holds its place — "who", "which". European languages | from a grammar |
| How far down can relativisation reach? | All the way to possessors — "the man whose dog barked". English again | WALS 122A, WALS 123A |
| Which side of the main clause does it go? | After — "I left when she arrived" | from a grammar |
| How is a yes/no question formed? | A question particle (Japanese ka, Mandarin ma, Polish czy) | WALS 116A, Grambank GB260 |
| In "she gave the child a book", which one is treated as the object? | The book. The child is marked like a direction — "to the child" | WALS 105A |
| Where does the question particle go? | At the start of the sentence | from a grammar |
| Where do phrases like "in the garden" or "with a knife" sit? | Always after the verb | from a grammar |
| Where does a manner adverb like "quickly" sit? | Before the verb | from a grammar |
| Can a clause modify a noun? ("the man who saw me") | Yes | from a grammar |
| Can a clause be the object of a verb? ("I know that she left") | Yes | from a grammar |
| How is such a clause joined on? | A little word introduces it — "that", "to", Japanese "to" | from a grammar |
| Where does the complementiser sit? | At the front of its clause — "that she left" | from a grammar |
| What is the complementiser? | chto | from a grammar |
| What is the relativiser? | kotoryy | from a grammar |
| Can a clause set the circumstances? ("when she arrived, I left") | Yes | from a grammar |
| How is a circumstance clause marked? | A conjunction opens it — "when", "because", "although" | from a grammar |
| What is the general-purpose subordinator? | kogda | from a grammar |
| What turns a clause into a noun? | -nie | from a grammar |
| Does a subordinate verb carry the same marking as a main verb? | Yes — fully marked, exactly like a main verb | from a grammar |
| Do subordinate clauses have their own word order? | No | from a grammar |
| Can unlike things be joined — a noun and a clause? | Yes | from a grammar |
| Can a repeated verb be left out of the second half? | Yes — "I ate rice and she, bread" | from a grammar |
| How is a comparison made? | With a case or adposition — "big from the dog". Arabic, Turkish | from a grammar |
| What marks the standard of comparison? | chem | from a grammar |
| How is a superlative made? | A separate marker — "the biggest" | from a grammar |
| What is the superlative marker? | samyy | from a grammar |
| How is "as big as" expressed? | The comparative machinery, with "same" | from a grammar |
| How does the language say "himself"? | A mark on the verb — Russian -sja, Romance se | from a grammar |
| What is the reflexive marker? | -sya | from a grammar |
| How does the language say "each other"? | The same marker as the reflexive — French se, Russian -sja | from a grammar |
| What is the reciprocal marker? | -sya | from a grammar |
| Which arguments can bind a reflexive? | Only a subject — the commonest arrangement | from a grammar |
| Must a reflexive and its antecedent share a clause? | Yes — as in English | from a grammar |
| How is "I have a book" expressed? | "The book is to me" — Latin, Hebrew, Irish | from a grammar |
| Are body parts and kin possessed differently from objects? | No — one construction for everything | from a grammar |
| Is a temporary possession marked differently from a lasting one? | No — one construction for both | from a grammar |
| Is a possession that has ended marked differently from a current one? | No — the tense of the clause does it | from a grammar |
| How is one part of a sentence emphasised? | By moving it to a dedicated position | from a grammar |
| Is there a dedicated position for the topic? | Yes — the topic comes first, whatever its role | from a grammar |
| How is "there is a cat" expressed? | Just the noun, with no verb | from a grammar |
| Do multiple negatives reinforce rather than cancel? | Yes — "I didn't see nobody" means I saw nobody | from a grammar |
| How is a negative command formed? | Ordinary negation plus the imperative | from a grammar |
| Is the word joining two nouns the same as the one joining two clauses? | Yes — one word for both | from a grammar |
| Where does a degree word like "very" go? | Before the adjective — very big | from a grammar |
| How does the language say "the house is big"? | With a copula, as a noun would take — "the house is big" | from a grammar |
| Is "she is a doctor" built the same way as "she is in the house"? | The same — one copula covers both | from a grammar |
| Is the word for "and" also the word for "all"? | No — separate words | from a grammar |
| Can an adjective stand without its noun — "the big one"? | Yes, with nothing added | from a grammar |
| Is the emphatic "herself" the same word as the reflexive one? | Yes — one word does both | from a grammar |
| Are there nouns that must always be possessed? | No — any noun can stand alone | from a grammar |
| In "she went to the market to buy bread", does "buy" carry its own tense? | No — it gives up tense and agreement | from a grammar |
| The word that opens a purpose clause | chtoby | from a grammar |
| In "I left because she arrived", does "arrived" carry its own tense? | Yes — it is marked like any other verb | from a grammar |
| How does the language say "I want her to leave"? | The wanted event has no subject of its own — only "I want to leave" is sayable | from a grammar |
| In "her leaving surprised me", what is "her"? | The doer in the ergative, and any object a possessor | from a grammar |
| In "she made him leave", how is "leave" joined on? | It is marked the way a purpose clause is | from a grammar |
Grammar
| Question | Answer | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Does the language distinguish singular from plural? | Yes | WALS 33A, Grambank GB044 |
| Does it distinguish "the" from "a"? | No | WALS 37A, Grambank GB020 |
| How does it keep subjects and objects apart? | Nominative–accusative (Latin, Japanese, Turkish) | WALS 98A, Grambank GB409 |
| What tenses does the verb distinguish? | Past against everything else | from a grammar |
| Does it distinguish "is going" from "goes"? | No | from a grammar |
| Does the verb agree with its subject? | Yes | from a grammar |
| Does "be" appear as a verb — "my brother is a farmer"? | No, the two halves simply sit side by side | WALS 120A |
| Which voices does the verb have? | Active and passive — "the bird was seen" | from a grammar |
| How is voice marked on the verb? | A suffix | from a grammar |
| What marks the passive? | -sya | from a grammar |
| Can a passive say who did it? | Yes, marked by a case on the noun | from a grammar |
| What is the agent case? | -om | from a grammar |
| What number distinctions are there? | Singular against plural | from a grammar |
| Does the language sort nouns into classes? | Masculine, feminine, neuter — German, Russian | Grambank GB051, Grambank GB052 |
| Do adjectives and verbs change to match the noun's class? | Yes | from a grammar |
| Which moods does the verb distinguish? | Statement, command, and a subjunctive for the unreal | from a grammar |
| Must a speaker say how they know? | No — it is optional or absent | from a grammar |
| Is there a way to say "make someone do it" on the verb? | No — a separate verb is used | from a grammar |
| Can the verb promote an oblique to object? | No | from a grammar |
| What aspects does the verb distinguish? | Perfective against imperfective — Slavic, Arabic | from a grammar |
| Does "we" distinguish whether the hearer is included? | No — one word for both | WALS 39A, WALS 40A |
| Does the verb change according to who is being addressed? | No | from a grammar |
| Does negating a sentence change anything else about the verb? | No — the negative is added and nothing else moves | from a grammar |
| How many cases does the language distinguish? | Six to nine — Latin, Russian, Turkish | from a grammar |
| Where is the relationship between words marked — on the head or on the dependent? | On the dependent — case on the noun, as Latin and Russian do | from a grammar |
| How does a noun get its gender? | By meaning and form — the shape of the word matters too | from a grammar |
| Is there a way to say "X and those with X"? | No — a plural means more of the same thing | from a grammar |
| Does the verb itself show whether "we" includes the hearer? | No — only the pronoun makes the distinction | from a grammar |
| Is subject agreement shown in every tense? | Yes — every tense shows it | from a grammar |
| What else changes when a clause is negated? | The verb loses its tense or agreement to a negative auxiliary | from a grammar |
| How do the subject and object cases differ in form? | Both are marked, and neither is built from the other | from a grammar |
| Do pronouns take the same cases as ordinary nouns? | Pronouns are nominative-accusative | from a grammar |
| Does a command use a special form of the verb? | Yes — a form used only for commands | from a grammar |
| Is there a form for "may it be so" — a wish? | No | from a grammar |
| Does the past distinguish how long ago? | No — one past | from a grammar |
| Is the future a tense, or a mood? | A tense — grouped with past and present | from a grammar |
| Is there a perfect — a past with present relevance? | No | from a grammar |
| What does the article system track? | There is no article | from a grammar |
| Do possessed nouns change form? | No | from a grammar |
| Does the verb say whether the next clause has the same subject? | No | from a grammar |
| Does the verb agree with the object as well as the subject? | No | from a grammar |
| What kind of classifier does counting need? | None | from a grammar |
| Is plural marking optional? | No — obligatory whenever plural | from a grammar |
| Can part of a sentence be negated on its own? | No — negation is always the whole clause | from a grammar |
| Does negation take two parts? | Yes — like French ne ... pas | from a grammar |
| Who can be commanded? | The hearer only | from a grammar |
| Are there verbs with irregular negative forms? | None | from a grammar |
Morphology
| Question | Answer | Source |
|---|---|---|
| What marks the object? | -u | from a grammar |
| What is the question particle? | li | from a grammar |
| First person singular ("I") | -yu | from a grammar |
| Second person singular ("you") | -esh | from a grammar |
| Plural ("we", "they") | -em | from a grammar |
| How much does the language bind onto a word? | Fusional — one affix carries several meanings (Latin, Russian) | WALS 20A |
| How is the plural attached? | A suffix on the word | from a grammar |
| What is the plural marker? | -y | from a grammar |
| How is case attached? | A suffix on the word | WALS 51A, Grambank GB070 |
| What marks the subject of a clause that has an object? | — | from a grammar |
| How is tense attached? | A suffix on the word | from a grammar |
| What marks the past? | -l | from a grammar |
| What marks the present, or the non-past? | — | from a grammar |
| What marks the future? | budet | from a grammar |
| How is the progressive attached? | A prefix on the word | from a grammar |
| What marks the progressive? | — | from a grammar |
| How is subject agreement attached? | A suffix on the word | WALS 26A |
| Third person singular ("she", "the cat") | -yet | from a grammar |
| Is the negator a separate word or part of the verb? | A separate particle | WALS 112A |
| What is the negator? | ne | from a grammar |
| How is definiteness attached? | Not expressed at all | from a grammar |
| Do third-person pronouns distinguish gender? | He against she | from a grammar |
| Is there more than one word for "you"? | Familiar and polite — French tu/vous, German du/Sie | from a grammar |
| How many degrees of distance do demonstratives have? | Two — this and that | from a grammar |
| Do demonstratives mark elevation or direction? | No | from a grammar |
| What does the counting system group by? | Tens | from a grammar |
| Where do numerals sit relative to what they count? | Before — three dogs | from a grammar |
| Are there separate ordinal numbers? | Yes — first, second, third | from a grammar |
| How are new words most often made? | By affix — happy, unhappiness | from a grammar |
| How is "one who does X" formed? | -tel | from a grammar |
| How is a diminutive formed? | -ik | from a grammar |
| How is an abstract noun formed from an adjective? | -ost | from a grammar |
| Are there infixes — pieces inserted inside a word? | No | from a grammar |
| Are the commonest words irregular in a way no rule explains? | Yes — go/went, good/better | from a grammar |
| Where do clitics attach? | In second position, whatever comes first — Serbo-Croatian, Warlpiri | from a grammar |
| Where does a possessive marker attach? | Nowhere — a possessor is a separate word only | from a grammar |
| Do adpositions change form for their object? | No — the adposition is invariant | from a grammar |
| How is "someone" or "something" formed? | From the question word — "who" doubles as "someone" | from a grammar |
| Is "this" the same word standing alone as it is before a noun? | Identical — "this book" and "I want this" | from a grammar |
| Is the third-person pronoun related to a demonstrative? | Unrelated — separate words with separate histories | from a grammar |
| Is there a way to say "two each"? | Yes, with a prefix | from a grammar |
| How does a pronoun become plural? | A different word entirely — like "I" and "we" | from a grammar |
| Does a verb change shape for how many are doing it? | No | from a grammar |
| How is "she can leave" — ability or circumstance — marked? | A separate word, as English does | from a grammar |
| The form for ability or circumstance | moch | from a grammar |
| How is "she may leave" — possibility — marked? | A separate word | from a grammar |
| The form for possibility | mozhet byt | from a grammar |
| How is "she must leave" — obligation — marked? | A separate word | from a grammar |
| The form for obligation | dolzhen | from a grammar |
Phonology
| Question | Answer | Source |
|---|---|---|
| What may a syllable look like? | (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C) | from a grammar |
| Fewest syllables in a word | 1 | from a grammar |
| Most syllables in a word | 6 | from a grammar |
| Which syllable is stressed? | No fixed rule | from a grammar |
| Does vowel length change a word's meaning? | No — length is not contrastive | PHOIBLE segments |
| Does consonant length change a word's meaning? | Yes — geminates are distinct | from a grammar |
| Does pitch on a syllable change a word's meaning? | No tone | PHOIBLE segments |
| Where does stress fall? | Wherever the word says — it has to be learned | from a grammar |
| Can stress alone tell two words apart? | Yes | from a grammar |
| Are there nasal vowels distinct from oral ones? | No | PHOIBLE segments |
| How do stops contrast? | Voiced against voiceless — /b/ against /p/. English, French | from a grammar |
| Are there ejective or implosive consonants? | No | PHOIBLE segments |
| Are there retroflex consonants? | No | PHOIBLE segments |
| Are there uvular consonants? | No | PHOIBLE segments |
| Are there clicks? | No | PHOIBLE segments |
| Do the vowels in a word have to match? | No | from a grammar |
| What happens to a voiced consonant at the end of a word? | It devoices — German "Rad" and "Rat" sound the same | from a grammar |
| How many consonants may start a syllable? | Three or more — English "strengths", Georgian, Polish | from a grammar |
| How may a syllable end? | A cluster of consonants | from a grammar |
| Can a consonant be a syllable on its own? | No | from a grammar |
| Is there a minimum size a word must reach? | No | from a grammar |
| Does the language repeat part of a word to change its meaning? | No | from a grammar |
| What makes a syllable heavy? | A closing consonant | from a grammar |
| What is the rhythm of the language? | Stress-timed — stresses fall evenly and syllables squeeze between them. English, German, Russian | from a grammar |
| Do unstressed vowels weaken? | Yes — they centralise or drop | from a grammar |
| What does the pitch do at the end of a statement? | Falls | from a grammar |
| What does the pitch do in a yes/no question? | Rises | from a grammar |
| How large is the sound inventory meant to be? | Large — over 45, like Georgian or !Xóõ | from a grammar |
| How many vowels? | Five — the world's commonest system | from a grammar |
| Are some vowels transparent to harmony? | No | from a grammar |
| Do neighbouring consonants become more alike? | Both | from a grammar |
| Is a vowel inserted to break up an awkward cluster? | Yes | from a grammar |
| Are sounds dropped in fast or casual speech? | Yes | from a grammar |
| Which syllable carries the accent, when it is fixed? | The first — Finnish, Hungarian, Czech | from a grammar |
| Do long words carry a secondary stress? | Yes | from a grammar |
| Do tones change when they meet? | No | from a grammar |
| What happens to a borrowed word with foreign sounds? | It is remade in native sounds | from a grammar |
| Does the writing show predictable sound changes? | No — spelling keeps the underlying form | from a grammar |
| Does syllable weight matter? | No | from a grammar |
| How long is a typical word? | Two or three | from a grammar |
| May a word begin with a vowel? | Yes | from a grammar |
Writing system
| Question | Answer | Source |
|---|---|---|
| What does one glyph stand for? | A sound — vowels written too (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, Korean) | from a grammar |
| Which way does the writing run? | Left to right | from a grammar |
| Are there spaces between words? | Yes | from a grammar |
| Is the end of a sentence marked? | Yes | from a grammar |
| What marks the end of a sentence? | . | from a grammar |
| Does the script have two cases? | Yes — capitals and small letters | from a grammar |
| How are words separated? | By spaces | from a grammar |
| Is vowel length written? | No | from a grammar |
| Is tone written? | No | from a grammar |
| How are numbers written? | With digits, positionally | from a grammar |
| Which way do multi-digit numbers run? | The same way as the text | from a grammar |
| How much punctuation is there? | A full set — stops, commas, quotes, questions | from a grammar |
| Is there a mark for a new section or paragraph? | No | from a grammar |
| How closely does spelling follow sound? | Very closely — Finnish, Spanish, Korean | from a grammar |
| Are there conventional abbreviations? | Yes | from a grammar |
| Where did the script come from? | Descended gradually from an older script | from a grammar |
| What was it first written on? | Paper or parchment — free-flowing | from a grammar |
| Do letters join or merge when adjacent? | No | from a grammar |
| Do letters change shape by position in the word? | No | from a grammar |
| Does the direction alternate line by line? | No — every line runs the same way | from a grammar |
| Has the spelling been reformed? | Once | from a grammar |
| Is there a calligraphic tradition? | No | from a grammar |
| Is there a shorthand or cursive for fast writing? | Yes | from a grammar |
| What is the script called? | Cyrillic | from a grammar |
Transliteration
| Question | Answer | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Should the spelling recover the SPELLING, or the SOUND? | The spelling — one sound, one spelling, always, so the original can be recovered | from a grammar |
| How should a sound with no Latin letter be written? | Two letters — ʃ as "sh". Familiar, but ambiguous with a real s followed by h | from a grammar |
| Show hyphens between morphemes? | No | from a grammar |
| What gets a capital letter? | The first word, and proper nouns | from a grammar |
| Mark the stressed syllable? | Yes | from a grammar |
| Write words in IPA instead of in your own symbols? | No | from a grammar |
| How are foreign names written? | Respelt in the native system | from a grammar |
| Are romanised proper nouns marked? | Yes — with a capital | from a grammar |
| May diacritics be dropped when typing? | Yes — the bare letters are acceptable | from a grammar |
| Is there more than one accepted romanisation? | Several, by country or era | from a grammar |
| Is tone written with numbers rather than marks? | No | from a grammar |
Semantics
| Question | Answer | Source |
|---|---|---|
| How many basic colour words does the language have? | The full set -- black, white, red, green, yellow, blue and more | from a grammar |
| What does the counting system group by? | Tens | WALS 131A, Grambank GB333, Grambank GB334, Grambank GB335 |
| Who raises a child? | Its parents, in their own household | from a grammar |
| Do they name relatives at all? | Yes — some relations are still recognised and named | from a grammar |
| Which relatives share a word? | Eskimo -- close family distinguished, cousins lumped (English) | from a grammar |
| Where does the PATH of a movement get said? | Beside the verb -- "run out", "float away" (English, Russian, Chinese) | from a grammar |
| Which way does the future lie? | Ahead is the future, behind is the past (English) | from a grammar |
| Are some things possessed differently from others? | No | Grambank GB059 |
| Does counting a noun require a classifier? | No | WALS 55A, Grambank GB057 |
| Are there ideophones — words that depict rather than describe? | A few, mostly for sound | from a grammar |
| How do ideophones fit into a sentence? | Like adverbs | from a grammar |
| Do ideophones break the ordinary sound rules? | No | from a grammar |
| How is location described? | Relative to the speaker — left, right, in front | from a grammar |
| Is the future ahead and the past behind? | No — the past is ahead, because it can be seen | from a grammar |
| Is a repeated time said differently from a single one? | No — the same construction, and context does the rest | from a grammar |
| How is time divided? | Hours and minutes | from a grammar |
| Are nouns and verbs clearly different classes? | Yes | from a grammar |
| Are adjectives their own word class? | Yes, an open class — English | from a grammar |
| How is the body divided into named parts? | Finely — separate words for hand and arm, foot and leg | from a grammar |
| Is there one verb for eating and drinking, or two? | Two | from a grammar |
| How are siblings named? | By sex — brother, sister | from a grammar |
| Are maternal and paternal grandparents named differently? | No | from a grammar |
| Are left and right named after anything? | With moral or ritual weight attached | from a grammar |
| How does the language take in foreign words? | By translating them piece by piece — German Fernsehen for television | from a grammar |
| Which languages does it borrow from, and for what? | Church Slavonic, French, then English | from a grammar |
| How many basic colour terms are there? | Eleven or more | from a grammar |
| Is blue distinguished from green? | Yes | from a grammar |
| How rich is the vocabulary for smell? | Poor — smells are described by their source | from a grammar |
| Is "with a friend" the same word as "with a knife"? | No — company and instrument take different words | from a grammar |
| Are red and yellow separate colours? | Separate words | from a grammar |
Pragmatics
| Question | Answer | Source |
|---|---|---|
| How does the language mark respect for the person being addressed? | Two pronouns: familiar and polite (French tu/vous) | WALS 45A, Grambank GB415 |
| Must a speaker say how they know what they are asserting? | No -- a plain statement says nothing about the source | WALS 78A, Grambank GB322, Grambank GB323 |
| How does a sentence say "this is what we are talking about"? | By putting it first | from a grammar |
| How does a sentence say "this bit is the news"? | By moving it to a special position | from a grammar |
| May a pronoun be left out when it is obvious who is meant? | No -- pronouns are always said | WALS 101A |
| Is there a separate way of speaking to particular people? | Yes | from a grammar |
| Are there little words whose whole job is managing the conversation? | Yes | from a grammar |
| How are people addressed? | By name | from a grammar |
| Are some names or words forbidden in some company? | No | from a grammar |
| What does a greeting ask about? | How you are | from a grammar |
| How is a request usually made? | Directly, with an imperative | from a grammar |
| Do listeners signal attention while someone else speaks? | Yes, frequently — Japanese aizuchi | from a grammar |
| What does silence mean in conversation? | Nothing — it is comfortable | from a grammar |
| Does "yes" agree with the question or with the fact? | With the question | from a grammar |
| Do speakers use clicks outside words? | Yes — to show feeling, as English tsk-tsk does | from a grammar |
| How many distinct registers are there? | Several — Javanese has three or more, with different vocabulary | from a grammar |
| Is there a separate language or register for ritual? | No | from a grammar |
| Do speakers use different forms depending on who they are? | No | from a grammar |
| Is there a distinct way of speaking to children? | Both | from a grammar |
| Is reported speech marked as such? | Yes — a quotative particle or verb | from a grammar |
| How is turn-taking managed? | Overlap is normal and cooperative | from a grammar |
What it is
| Question | Answer | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Who or what uses this? | People — a language that could have evolved on Earth | from a grammar |
| What channel does a message travel down? | Sound made with a vocal tract — every spoken human language | from a grammar |
| Can the channel carry more than one thing at once? | No — one thing at a time, in a line | from a grammar |
| Are signals built from smaller, meaningless pieces? | Yes — meaningless units combine into meaningful ones | from a grammar |
| Can it refer to what is not here and now? | Yes — the past, the distant, the hypothetical | from a grammar |
| Can new messages be made that have never been made before? | Yes — the set of possible messages has no end | from a grammar |
| Is the link between signal and meaning a convention? | Yes — arbitrary, agreed rather than resembling | from a grammar |
| Do signals fall into distinct categories? | Yes — discrete, one signal or another | from a grammar |
| Is it learned rather than inherited? | Yes — learned from others, and it drifts | from a grammar |
| Can they see? | Yes — sight is a main sense | from a grammar |
| How long does one of them live? | Decades, as people do | from a grammar |
| Is there anyone else to talk to? | Many neighbours, and constant contact | from a grammar |